Pharmacological Profiles of Several Common Drugs

Pharmacological Profiles of Several Common Drugs 2.3 Profile of Pheniramine Maleate (31) Chemical name: (3RS)-N,N-Dimethyl-3-phenyl-3-(pyridine-2-yl)propan-1-amine(Z)-butenedioate Empirical formula: C20H24N2O4 Chemical structure: Figure 2.3:Structure of Pheniramine Maleate 2.3.1 Physical properties Molecular weight: 356.4 Appearance and colour: White or almost white crystalline powder. Solubility: Very soluble in water, freely soluble in ethanol (96 %)in methanol and in methylene chloride. Therapeutic category:Pheniramine maleate belongs to H1-antagonist pharmacological group on the basis of mechanism of action and also classified in Antihistamine, Decongestant. Dosage: Tablet , Powder, Solution 2.3.2 Pharmacology Pheniramine maleate is an antihistamine used for alleviation of allergy symptoms. Manufacturers frequently list the over-the-counter medication as pheniramine maleate or a derivative. Drug industries also often combine the formulation with other medications for relief of other symptoms. Consumers can generally find the ingredient in an oral solution or tablet form. Certain ophthalmic solutions also contain pheniramine maleate, which provides relief from allergy symptoms associated with the eyes. Allergic reactions are autoimmune responses to certain antigens. When allergens enter the bloodstream, the body releases histamine, which binds with and activates receptor sites, located throughout the body, producing physical symptoms. The pharmacological action of pheniramine maleate involves blocking the receptor sites for the histamine H1, found in the heart, central nervous system, smooth muscle, and vascular endothelium cells. Blocking the receptor sites reduces or inhibits the symptoms. The antihistamine is frequently used for seasonal allergies, such as hay fever, or environmental allergies, such as animal dander. By blocking histamine receptor sites, pheniramine maleate can reduce or eliminate itching, watery eyes, runny noses, and skin irritations. Allergy related skin irritations might include the itching, redness, and swelling associated with eczema or uticaria, commonly referred to as hives (40). The medication may produce a sedative effect when binding to sites in the central nervous system. It also may produce an anticholinergic effect by dilating or relaxing smooth muscle. These side effects sometimes allow pheniramine maleate to be used as treatment for motion sickness or the inner ear condition known as Meniere’s disease. 2.4 Profile of Phenylephrine Hydrochloride (78) Chemical name:(R)-(-)-1-(3-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-methylaminoethanol hydrochloride Empirical formula:C9H13NO2HCL Chemical structure: Figure 2.4 : Structure of Phenylephrine Hydrochloride 2.4.1 Physical properties Molecular weight:203.67 Appearance and colour: White or practically white odourless crystals Solubility: Freely soluble in water and alcohol Therapeutic category: Phenylephrine is a sympathomimetic amine that acts predominantly on ÃŽ ±-adrenergic receptors. It is mainly used to treat nasal congestion, but may also be useful in treating hypotension and shock, hypotension during spinal anaesthesia, prolongation of spinal anaesthesia, paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia, symptomatic relief of external or internal hemorrhoids, and to increase blood pressure as an aid in the diagnosis of heart murmurs. Dosage: Cream, Solution, Ointment, Injection, Liquid, Tablet, Suppository 2.4.2 Pharmacology In general, ÃŽ ±1-adrenergic receptors mediate contraction and hypertrophic growth of smooth muscle cells. ÃŽ ±1-receptors are 7-transmembrane domain receptors coupled to G proteins, Gq/11. Three ÃŽ ±1-receptor subtypes, which share approximately 75% homology in their transmembrane domains, have been identified: ÃŽ ±1A (chromosome 8), ÃŽ ±1B (chromosome 5), and ÃŽ ±1D (chromosome 20). Phenylephrine appears to act similarly on all three receptor subtypes. All three receptor subtypes appear to be involved in maintaining vascular tone. The ÃŽ ±1A-receptor maintains basal vascular tone while the ÃŽ ±1B-receptor mediates the vasocontrictory effects of exogenous ÃŽ ±1-agonists. Activation of the ÃŽ ±1-receptor activates Gq-proteins, which results in intracellular stimulation of phospholipases C, A2, and D. This results in mobilization of Ca2+ from intracellular stores, activation of mitogen-activated kinase and PI3 kinase pathways and subsequent vasoconstriction. Phenylephrine produces its local and systemic actions by acting on ÃŽ ±1-adrenergic receptors peripheral vascular smooth muscle. Stimulation of the ÃŽ ±1-adrenergic receptors results in contraction arteriolar smooth muscle in the periphery. Phenylephrine decreases nasal congestion by acting on ÃŽ ±1-adrenergic receptors in the arterioles of the nasal mucosa to produce constriction; this leads to decreased edema and increased drainage of the sinus cavities. 2.5 Profile of Dextromethorphan (79) Chemical name:(1R,9R,10R) 4 methoxy 17 methyl – 17 azatetracyclo[7.5.3.0{1,10}.0{2,7}]heptadeca-2,4,6-triene Empirical formula:C18H25NO Chemical structure: Figure 2.5 : Structure of Dextromethorphan 2.5.1 Physical properties Molecular weight:271.39 Appearance and colour: It is a White crystalline powder Solubility: 1-5 g/100 mL at 21 Â ºC Therapeutic category: Dextromethorphan usually used in the treatment of respiratory infections and allergic conditions Dosage: Tablet , Syrup, Capsule, Suspension 2.5.2 Pharmacology Dextromethorphan is an opioid-like drug that binds to and acts as antagonist to the NMDA glutamatergic receptor, it is an agonist to the opioid sigma 1 and sigma 2 receptors, it is also an alpha3/beta4 nicotinic receptor antagonist and targets the serotonin reuptake pump. Dextromethorphan is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, where it enters the bloodstream and crosses the blood-brain barrier. The first-pass through the hepatic portal vein results in some of the drug being metabolized into an active metabolite of dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, the 3-hydroxy derivative of dextromethorphan. 2.6 Profile of Diphenhydramine (80) Chemical name: 2-(diphenylmethoxy)-N,N-dimethylethanamine Empirical formula:C17H21NO HCL Chemical structure: Figure 2.6 : Structure of Diphenhydramine 2.6.1 Physical properties Molecular weight:291.82 Appearance and colour: It is a White crystalline powder Solubility: Soluble in DMSO, acetone, water Therapeutic category: Diphenhydramineis a first-generationantihistamine possessing anticholinergic, antitussive, antiemetic, and sedative properties that is mainly used to treat allergies. It is also used in the management of drug-induced parkinsonism and other extrapyramidal symptoms. The drug has a strong hypnotic effect and is FDA-approved as a non-prescription sleep aid, especially in the form of diphenhydramine citrate Dosage: Capsule 2.6.2 Pharmacology Diphenhydramine is an inverse agonist of the histamineH1receptor. It is a member of the ethanolamine class of antihistaminergic agents. By blocking the effects of histamine on the capillaries, it can reduce the intensity of allergic symptoms. Diphenhydramine also crosses the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and antagonizes the H1 receptors centrally. Its effects on central H1 receptors cause drowsiness. Like many other first-generation antihistamines, diphenhydramine is also a potent antimuscarinic (a competitive antagonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors), and, as such, at high doses can cause anticholinergic syndrome. The utility of diphenhydramine as

Employment of elderly people in Hong Kong

Employment of elderly people in Hong Kong In the past decades, the discussion of work and aging has aroused widely public and professional thinking. In this paper, I would begin with the analysis of the current Hong Kong situations and characteristics of older workers, among which I pay most of attention to the low participation rate of elderly workers and try to demonstrate the reason accounting for that. The second part can be seen as a brief summary of the productivity and limitations of old workers in Hong Kong today. Finally, I would come up with several suggestions on how to encourage labor force participation. Keywords: employment of elderly, productivity, functional limitation, old worker Employment of elderly people Situations of the employment of elderly in Hong Kong With the baby boomer generations entering into their old years, the employment of older people has brought about wide public concern. According to the sources from Census and Statistics Department, at the middle of 2010, there are more than 1.78 million Hong Kong people over the age of 55, 51.46 percent of whom are age 65 and above, and 25.76 percent of whom are age 75 and above. Many of these people are working or have had work experience and, many of retired persons work at least part time after they leave their permanent job. Among all the features of older workers in Hong Kong today, we would focus on several main characteristics to help us understand the situation. Labor force participation rates In Hong Kong 2009, the labor force participation rates, which refer to the proportion of economically active population (that is the labor force) in the total population aged 15 and above was 26.5 percent for the age 55 and above. Among that, we can find that the labor force participation rate for this age group was apparently higher for males (37.6 percent) than for females (15.9 percent). Nevertheless, nearly ten years ago, the labor force participation rates of the age 55 or over was 56 percent, which is almost twice the number of today. The employed and unemployed population The unemployment rate of older worker is relatively lower than that of young workers. In 2009, the unemployment rate for age group of 60 or above was 3.1 percent, which substantially lower than its counterpart aged 20-29 group of 7.3 percent. There are a few reasons accounting for that, but the most important one would be that older people can retire as an alternative choice. On the other hand, people over the age of 50 are still employed for a number of reasons. Thomas Leavitt once mentions that, the majority of people at ages 50-62 would still choose to work mostly because they enjoy the satisfaction and useful feeling brought by working, which followed by the need to make money. However, at the age of 62 or over, the requirement for money becomes their major concern. Low labor force participation rate among older persons The downward trend in labor force participation rates among elderly is considered by many people. First of all, many would agree that the current social security policy carried out by the government is encouraging the increased employment rate for young people by removing the old workers in the labor force. Turner claims that: for any given employee at any given time, the alternative of retiring on a pension is more attractive than to keep working for a salary. (Turner, 1993) The social security and medical care of old people do protect them from low income, but is also reduces the employment rate. The productivity and functional limitations of older workers Most of us would agree that productive activity plays a significant role in successful aging and higher self-related happiness. Older people who remain high level of productivity accomplish better physical functioning and are less likely to die six years after self-report. Therefore, we would like to ask: how elderly Hong Kong people will take part in economic and social activities? The assumption that age and job performance are closely related has been confirmed by a variety of aging researches (McEvoy and Cascio, 1989). On one hand, many reported that older workers are more productive than younger workers for that they tend to be more dependable, careful and responsible. Certainly, no evidence shows that learning capacities will significantly fall with the aging process. Therefore, it is important to find out aged related decline causes so that we can extend work-life for elderly by providing protections, services and benefits. On investigating the effects of the potential of aging have on the productivity of older worker, I pay attention to the following factors: Age-related physical changes and limitations There are many indications imply that the strength of people declines with the aging process. Many people at age of 60 report that physically demanding job is hard and strenuous for them to carry on, so they tend to leave the work that is highly physical in nature. Apart from changes in strength, old people also experience the physical loss of endurance and balance and, an increase of reaction time as a result of peripheral nervous system gradually slows down. With regard to health and rehabilitation, it is well-accepted that the measures of functional capacity can reflect the extent to which elderly are able to work. However, the functional capacity does not merely mean an absence of disease. There are conditions which are directly related to aging, such as heart disease, cancer and stroke. While for those conditions such as hearing and visual impairment, they are not necessarily the functional limitations preventing people from work. Annis and colleagues (Annis et al. 1991) also conclude that weight gains are regarded as the fifth decade of life, followed by declines. They mentions in their research on anthropometric changes with age: the individuals body dimensions change also, characterized by increases in the size of the stomach and hips. Moreover, some old workers admit that they have difficulties to perform tasks involving highly repetitive manual actions, the use of small hand tools or using force (Tayyari Sohrabi, 1990). Age-related cognitive changes and limitations The traditional discussion about changes in cognitive ability of old people focuses on intelligence, memory, and learning and so on. According to medical findings, brain loses weight as a result of shrinking neuron size in cerebral cortex and some mental problems such as depression and dementia occur with aging. Yet in order to perceive the complicated relationship between cognitive change and working ability, I refer to some mental models of cognitive sciences to help us understand the situation in which old people gain knowledge, skills and experience through aging while loss perceptual capacity and motor speed. When assessing the changes in intelligence, major longitudinal studies (Schaie, 1985) claim that most individuals can maintain the stable intellectual level well into their seventies and over and that modifiability in brain function continue well into late adulthood. But findings also suggest that people tend to less efficiently process complex information with increase of age. Overall, there is no obvious evidence show that old peoples performance is unsatisfactory under the daily and ordinary job situations. Even if there are changes in problem-solving ability of older people, they can use job experience and extensive skills to compensate age-related slowing performance. Older adults deliver a decline performance on lab-related cognitive task but demonstrate good level performance in real-world job, and there appears to be no significant relationship between age and job capacities. Warren Buffett, born in 1930 and ranked as the worlds second wealthiest person in 2009, is one of the most successful, active and smart investors in the stock and capital market of the world today. He is often called the legendary investor Warren Buffett for his precisely judgment of the market and value invest philosophy. But he is not a special case in the expertise, problem solving and decision making condition of old people. Actually, everyday plenty of old adults are making the most important and complicated decisions in the world as executives, politicians, and world leaders. Researches find that cognitive processes appear to be more important in the differentiating the old and young managers. Expertise in a certain field can act as an improvement to cognitive aging. In a research conducted to investigate the relationship between cognitive aging and experience, sociologists find that among experienced players, those who are skilled in bidding strategies could ameliorate the neg ative influence of cognitive aging until nearly the age of 60. The highest level of a job description would be the creative thinking. The researches focus on creativity and idea productivity state that originality declines gradually from younger worker to older workers. Age-related sensory and perceptual changes and limitations When concern about old peoples visual changes, Fozard (1990) presents four main sensory and perceptual capacities we need to focus most. Firstly, he concludes that excessive extent of illumination can cause elderly workers adversely reactions. For example, older workers have shown to be more adversely affected by glare from lights in workplace. Secondly, he also mentions the disability of older adults to detect different visual stimuli, which he calls poor contrast. Old workers require more contrast between the stimuli before distinguishing them. Furthermore, a third age-related change in visual ability is the useful field of view, in which older workers gain messages from environment. Finally, he also points out that the decrease level of visual activity of older adult bring about the fact that they are not favorable to read printed material (Fozard, 1990). It is well recognized that many older people experience hearing changes such as difficulties to hear sounds at high frequencies. Sometimes we find older people would speak louder because they cannot hear themselves. What is more, many manifest trouble to understand what they have clearly heard at a given loudness. Suggestion about this can include reduce distracting noise in working place for old people. When we talk about older people, the most common stereotype of them would be slow to perceive things as an aging deficit. Scientific research findings indicate that it will take nearly 1.2 times longer for older people to finish cognitive process than their counterpart. In a conclusion, job performance is closely related to functional ability but deficits with aging can not necessarily prevent most of older workers from being still effective and qualified employees. Older workers have positive effects on labor force productivity and economic growth Encourage the labor force participation rate of elderly After talking about all the strength and deficits of older work, I would like to focus on the dealings with means of expanding the opportunities for them to regain active participants in the labor market. In the first place, empirical evidence that elderly have difficulty integrating information from multiple sources gives us a clue to develop communication and information-handling systems for older workers in workplace. For this reason, the priority for designing the system is to be acceptable by majority of users. What is more, in order to integrate into the labor force, older worker are longing for training of the new technology or skills in an easy to comprehensive way when they face up the difficulties with computerized work situations. Training and educational programs would be really helpful if we handle them on the right direction. That means we understand that elderly employees have alternative requirements for different position. Finally, if the government could apply more practical social policy and promote the social perspectives of the whole community, the low labor force participation rate may grow to meet the need of older people in Hong Kong. Even though we understand unemployment, no matter for young or old, is a problem brought about by economic recession, policy can still try to help aging who really need assistance in meeting their daily needs and can live peacefully.

Physical Activity in the US Essay -- Social Issues, Transportation

The level of the population’s level of physical activity is becoming a major public health concern in the United States (Wahlgren, 2011). As a result of urban sprawl, Americans rely heavily on personal vehicles to travel to work or other destinations. This is leading to a sedentary life style for the public as they take to their cars to travel to their destination. The public’s perception of the environments in which they live in are likely influencing their behaviors resulting in their dependance on personal vehicles. (Wahlgren, 2011). The physical environment and peoples’ levels of physical activity are directly connected. Low density zoning and auto-dependent development is resulting in the promotion of sedentary life styles. Most activities, like commuting to work or shopping, requires the use of a personal vehicle because of the area’s isolation in residential zones and commercial zones (Ewing, 2010). Alternative modes like walking or bicycling are ra ther impractical, as the areas often have little to no sidewalks or other pedestrian friendly amenities (Marshall, 2009). The Low density design is developed because residential homes have fewer units per acre and commercial buildings tend to only be a couple of stories and spaced further apart. The sizes of lots tend to be bigger to accommodate large parking lots that are often oversized and unsafe for pedestrians. An effort to combat the continual development of urban sprawl, smart growth development looks to solve this dilemma. The idea of smart growth concentrates its development around compact walkable centers within urban areas. The purpose of this is to avoid the growing sprawl through the implementation of walkable, bicycle-friendly and alternative transportation like b... ...uate personal motivation, however it is an issue that involves social and physical obstacles that must be overcome as well (Steinman, 2010). Environments that enhance walkability are typically associated with greater pedestrian traffic and lower body mass index (BMI). Neighborhood safety and traffic volumes and road speeds have been identified in the ACRES and other studies as determinants to a walk able neighborhood (Steinman, 2010, Wahlgren, 2011). Urban planners can address these issue in several different ways. Placing sidewalks and lighting to clearly guide pedestrians and creating visibility with canopy trees can create safe inviting spaces. Addressing volume and speed on roadways can be addressed by introducing sidewalk bulbs, roundabout and buffers between sidewalks and streets through the use of landscaping (Wahlgren, 2011, Dumbaugh, 2011, Frumkin, 2002).

Ethnocentrism :: essays research papers

Ethnocentrism #1a.> The difference between the way that the Thais deal with traffic accidents is very different from our own in the manner that when an accident occurs they compare the damage done to each vehicle and then the damage done to each person. To call the police is a big waste of time because many other riders do not have a license. After the problem had been taken care of you are not supposed to make any other contact with the other party. It almost seems like the debate between the groups that gathered was the way that the people could get rid of boredom. #1b.> Not going to jail and the passing of the day is the need that the Thais obtained. #2.> Three examples of Ethnocentrism: a) When the people from the street approached the injured men, the people seemed just as interested in the damage to the motorcycles as they were to the injuries to the persons riding the bikes. b) There was no direct contact between the parties that were in the accident, the people standing aroun d each of the men did the running between the men. The police were not called and there was no lawsuit or fight between the motorists. c) There is just as many people without licenses as there are people with licenses. #3.> Sometimes when we avoid ethnocentric behavior, and respect the other cultures, we lose a portion of our own culture. Our culture is supposed to be based on peace but, for example, with the rise of violence in schools it is necessary to keep all knives out of the classroom. The government let â€Å"ceremonial knives† enter the school. What really is the difference between a â€Å"ceremonial† and regular knives? They both cause bleeding when used and they both kill, isn’t this what we’re trying to stop? We are going to lose our culture in order to keep religion alive.

Chaucers The General Prologue Essay -- Chaucer General Prologue Essay

Chaucer's The General Prologue Chaucer-the pilgrim starts out â€Å"The General Prologue† with detailed descriptions of each pilgrim as he views them. When Chaucer-the pilgrim arrives at the Pardoner, he becomes very focused on his physical appearance and what is seems to be missing. There is something odd about this Pardoner and Chaucer-the pilgrim can’t seem to grasp just what that is. He describes that the Pardoner is all on fire to do is job, just arriving from Rome (Bretful of pardon, come from Rome al hoot). However, his eagerness to Pardon those for God does not help his physical appearance in any respect. Chaucer-the pilgrim describes his voice as that of a high-pitched goat and points out that he has no facial hair and will presumably never have any, as his face is just as smooth as if he had recently shaved (A vois he hadde as small as hath a goot; / No beerd hadde he, ne nevere sholde have; / As smoothe it was as it were late yshave). Chaucer-the pilgrim is setting up in the reader’ s mind that of a prepubescent boy, yet as the reader knows there are no children on the jour...

Compare the Ways in Which the Roles of Women are Portrayed Essay

When focusing explicitly on the topic of a woman’s seemingly ever-evolving status, one would constantly perceive it to be a working progress of the woman and the rise of her independence. So, why when analysing both, ‘The Wife of Bath’ and ‘Death of a Salesman’ do these roles of the most prominent women seem to be in reverse? The history of a woman’s autonomy branches outwards from the past, therefore enforcing the idea of a woman, living in an earlier period, to exist under high demands of fulfilling the traditional expressive position. Yet with regards to Chaucer’s tale, why is it that Alisoun is able to possess characteristics that are both a controversy for the 14th century during in which it was written, and to a certain extent, this era momentarily? On the other hand, the 1950s ‘Death of a Salesman’ harbours a heroine who remains true to her decade’s basic notion on how both a woman and a wife should persist to be, consequently presenting Linda Loman as a stock character. With a distance of 6 centuries, is there an abstruse intention to why both the female protagonists are depicted in an unusual fashion, and totally out of the ordinary when its context is taken into account, or, is this simply the writers’ approach to manifest some sort of a response, whether it be mere shock, indulgent laughter, or utter appreciation? The titles alone contain an instantaneous conception on how both women are portrayed concurrently. ‘The Wife of Bath’ obtains an immediate link to Alisoun, unlike ‘Death of a Salesman’ which simply refers to Willy Loman and includes no innuendo of his wife Linda. Alisoun’s ownership of the tale is reinforced by the noun ‘Wife’ as a direct association to her, suggesting that she is the focal point of the tale. But is she? The prologue is definitely in her possession with her martial history being the key plot; however the tale on the other hand clearly centres the knight as the protagonist, consequently endorsing the audience to make an initial judgment on Alisoun’s character as one which is strong enough to acquire her own title. Maybe Chaucer’s main purpose was to make his eponymous hero a female to either stagger the audience by the pragmatical meaning of this whereby such power and eminence is handed to a female character, or to purely ridicule a woman with any supremacy, and in effect, is symbolic since it contains the intention of formulating humour for an audience existing in a 14th century world. With this reasoning in mind, the common use of the noun ‘Wife’ would then become a more abstract version of this since, in essence, this is merely an idea of her control and alliance to the city. Perhaps the title ‘The Wife of Bath’ can be decoded then as a euphemism that solely associates with Alisoun’s, ‘Housbandes at chirche dore I have had five-‘ This has been translated as a misrepresentation of her being promiscuous which uses hyperbole to reinforce the concept and also assists in the beginning of a caricature adaptation of a woman who is unlike most others. On the contrary, since ‘Death of a Salesman’ purely refers to Willy, this would consequently support how dominating the male gender had been in the early 50s. In relation to Linda however, the absence of any insinuation of her in the title holds a vital insight of how she is portrayed through the play itself. This maintains the persistent imagery of Linda conserving her private role as a housewife, and to an extent, Willy’s constant positive conscience, Willy – ‘I suddenly couldn’t drive anymore. ’ Linda – ‘Maybe it was the steering wheel again. ’ The adverb ‘Maybe’ certainly exhibits some indecision with Linda’s response indicating that even though she may not entirely know what Willy requires, she knows it is necessary for her to provide a reasonable answer that will help ease the blame off Willy, facilitating the assumption of Linda’s loyalty to her husband, even during the worst of times. Arthur Miller’s intention of having no connotation to Linda in the title could be indeed for the purpose of supporting the idea of her selflessness compared to Willy’s egotistical behaviour. This theory of Linda’s ignored compassion is also demonstrated when Willy commits suicide. ‘I can’t understand it. ’ This simple sentence is most commonly used with the verb ‘do not/don’t’, but, semantically, Miller permits Linda to unusually phrase this with the modal auxiliary verb and the nagator ‘can’t’ to express her rejection towards comprehending his refusal of living life fully. Perhaps the importance of this approach was to portray just how vulnerable and helpless not just Linda, but the rest of the female population was in the 50s. As if to say it had nothing to do with the capacity of the female brain but the knowledge of where that woman should remain to be. The title is therefore a description of Linda’s personality and depicts just how much Linda is taken for granted. In the earliest stage directions of ‘Death of a Salesman’, the lexis used to describe Linda Loman all relate to the semantic field of household items and the act of obeying a person: ‘stirred’ ‘iron repression’ ‘admires’ ‘listening’ Semantically, theses lexicons relate to the play itself. The stative adverb ‘admire’ implies Linda may not feel worthy of Willy therefore she can only have a high regard for him and not the ability to put herself in his position. According to this then, Linda could be summarized as a character that has a low opinion of herself. The comparison to household items proves to be crucial since it could be categorized as an exposition, introducing the audience to Linda’s most prominent characteristic. A more modern audience, and in particular contemporary women, would argue that this was very demeaning since it implies this was all they are known for. Throughout the description of the Wife from the General prologue, the audience obtains a direct inkling of her character. ‘Housbandes at chirche dore she hadde five’ This sentence delivers an eye opener as to what Alisoun’s social status is. Since only the elite managed to marry inside of a church, this would then imply that from the age of 12, Alisoun has supposedly not ascended the ladder of social mobility. The syntax of this however creates some hesitancy to admit the true number of her failed marriages. Given that she leaves the actual amount ‘five’ till last reinforces the idea of her true emotions towards them. The similarity between Linda and Alisoun then would be that aside from the fact that one woman has had considerably more partners than the other: Alisoun is still in search of love, remaining to be ever willing to find her true match. This is further proven with the syntax from the quotation. As ‘Housbandes’ is the first word in the sentence, it indicates she finds pleasure in having a husband because of the urgency to articulate the concrete noun ‘Housbandes’, despite the fact that they were all failures. Linda’s crime is that she loves her only husband far too much. It is evident that in spite of her devotion to Willy, he still ignores her and takes her for granted, Linda- ‘Take an aspirin. Should I get you an aspirin? It’ll soothe you. ’ Willy- ‘I was driving along, you understand? ’ Here it is visible that Willy does overlook his wife completely by his sudden change in topicality and the flouting of the Grice’s maxim of relevance. Perhaps this is due to the way he perceives Linda, and the minimal respect he has for her. This is further evident with his tag question, ‘you understand? Unlike Robin Lakoff’s female language theory, this does not abide by her rules. In her opinion these tag questions imply a need for some support rather than a critical remark. However it is obvious that Willy does not require any backing since he is the most dominant speaker. The pragmatics of this statement show how much of a low disregard he has on Linda’s capability of understanding such a simple concep t as driving, consequently suggesting he does, in actual fact, take his loving wife for granted. Miller’s intentions here differ depending on the gender perspective. Since this is one of many occurrences where Willy insults Linda’s intelligence, this provides evidence of her complete devotion to her husband. Perhaps this mirrors the reality of the 1950s’ female audience therefore Miller’s motive in creating such a character was simply to please the existing female population at that time and nothing more. From a male point of view following the same thesis of art imitating life, Willy’s ability to have both control and authority over Linda would have also been Miller’s method in satisfying the male audience. Linda’s speech also indicates some reluctance of being abrupt towards her husband. ‘Take an aspirin. Should I get you an aspirin? ’ This reads to be an almost repaired statement, strengthening the notion of her delicacy when interacting with her husband. Depending on the stage direction as to how this is supposed to be acted out, another contention could be that Linda’s true being slipped out for a moment. The unusual abruptness of the first sentence followed by the modal verb ‘Should’ may imply how Linda must always remain to be conscious of the words she speaks even if she truthfully isn’t like that. This could possibly have been Miller’s subtle approach in exposing just how human a woman truly is. Linda’s character is one that appears to be careful in every action she undertakes, Alisoun on the other hand gives the impression of being self-sufficient in her decisions. ‘What that he mente therby, I kan nat seyn; But that I axe, why the fifthe man Was non housbonde to the Samaritan? How manye mighte she have in marriage? Yet herde I nevere tellen in myn age Upon this nombre diffinicioun. ’ In a Russian Formalist literary opinion, her attitude here in this verse would suggest she is blasphemous and very defensive of her deeds. By allowing an illiterate female commoner challenge basic Christian belief, Chaucer invites an astonishing controversial angle on reality. An audiences’ reaction to this from the 14th century would be of great annoyance towards Alisoun since she occupies no immense background to express such a powerful opinion. According to the first line ‘What that he mente therby, I kan nat seyn’ this also suggests that her judgment is based on a more personal outlook rather than facts. From my own 21st century perspective following the same Russian Formalist fundamentals, this verse stands to be an opinion and nothing more. Alisoun’s analysis may not have changed but the reaction from the audience would have instead. In actual fact, her intrusive manner would have been one that would have been valued despite of her gender. Regardless of the fact that both texts are fictional, their mediums exhibit various conclusions: since ‘The Wife of Bath’ is classed as poetry there are some limitations as to what could have been written. It would appear that Chaucer’s main objective was to entertain the listener rather than being factual. This is evident due to the consistent structure of rhyming couplets and alliteration. Somme seyde women loven best richesse, Somme seyde honour, somme seyde jolinesse,’ There is a distinctive pattern here which works throughout the rest of the tale. Seeing as though there are no breaks or clear stanzas in the poem, the use of parallelism suggests that a list is about to form without abiding by the usual formation of a list. The rhyming, alliteratio n and sibilance ‘Somme seyde’ ‘richnesse’ ‘jolinesse’, adds emphasis on the ideas explored throughout the tale in a way which amuses an audiences of any age. Death of a Salesman’ has none of these restrictions, whereby no rules or patterns are needed to be followed. Miller is able to write as he wishes, therefore could it be said that this enables him to write according to the truth? As an audience we are only ever permitted to listen and believe the character’s opinions. This limits exactly how much we should class as valid and thus acts as a confinement of plays in general. The importance of this does not only rest on how valid these texts are historically. In context to the essay question, the mediums affect the way the theme of power is portrayed. With the aid of humour, Chaucer is able to manipulate how the audience perceives the unusual occurrence of a woman who owns such authority. This comedy enables the audience to interpret the dubious topics mentioned in the prologue half -heartedly therefore suggesting that the text can’t completely be taken seriously. Conversely ‘Death of a Salesman’ does not include many entertaining scenes to conceal the control Willy has over Linda and consequently Miller sanctions the audience into producing their own take on the subjects referred to all through the play. Sometimes a woman’s basic actions can be justified by her experiences. Alisoun has the ability to convey such intense concepts because of her endless incidents in the past. Her character’s reputation appears to be licentious which consequently enables an audience to reign in on their annoyance of her. Chaucer has portrayed Alisoun in a way which can only be described as caricature. What should be taken into consideration is that perhaps Chaucer’s overall intention when creating such an exaggerated character like the wife was to humour the audience with the ridicule of a woman with such freedom. Or perhaps it was to produce a character like no other that owns the ability to question the acts of society and their standard beliefs. Out of the entire ‘Canterbury Tales’ there are only two women who possess the ability to tell their story: the Prioress and the Wife. Since the Prioress already maintains the basics of a 14th century woman graciously, Alisoun is possibly Chaucer’s technique in inventing a woman who stands for everything the ordinary woman of that time would not and as a result, portrays life on each end of the pole for all types of audiences to experience. Linda’s character owns a front which, even after the analysis, maintains the idea of an obedient wife. However, the initial idea of her abiding by this characteristic has evidently changed. Yes, she still sticks by with her husband, even after affairs and a lack of care and attention, but is she not a stronger woman in spite of all this? Alisoun has the ability to end her marriage as soon as it goes wrong as if to say she is still searching for her ‘ideal man’ and so self-sufficient that she refuses to lead a miserable life, yet Linda remains to be as courteous as ever even after the marital problems. For a 1950s audience, Miller birthed a female icon, a woman who exists in a realist play regarding the common aspiration of the attempts at conquering the ‘American Dream’. All in all, the roles which appeared to be in reverse now seem to walk side by side along the path of independence. Six centuries apart, diverse situations at hand but both individualistically vigorous women ready to undertake what life has planned for the both of them.

Irregular warfare / future war Essay

â€Å"The Pentagon’s New Map† is a groundbreaking bestseller of Thomas Barnett, which became one of the most talked-about books of the 2004 year. It combined economic, political, and security factors to provide a fundamental re-examination of war and peace in the post-9/11. Also it’s compelling vision of the future. It consists of preface, 8 chapters and acknowledgements. This writing is devoted to how Mr. Barnett sees the global security landscape and is built on the works of Fukuyama, Huntington and Friedman. In this book author describes recent U. S.strategy and discusses where military forces will likely be heading in the near future. Barnett states: â€Å"I found myself instinctively exploring the seam between war and peace, locating it first in U. S. military crisis responses and then America’s foreign aid, and finally focusing on its leading edge – the spread of the global economy itself† (p. 5). This book examines a new version of national security for the 21st century, makes important suggestions to the Government on actions the America should take, and theorizes what could happen in the next 50 years concerning the global landscape. The author of the book outlines the crucial role the United States needs to play in establishing international stability. Thomas P. M. Barnett, Blueprint for Action: A Future Worth Creating (New York, NY: Berkley Books, 2005). This book is a sequel to Barnett’s â€Å"The Pentagon’s New Map†. The first book dealt with the past and â€Å"Blueprint for Action: A Future Worth Creating† is a futuristic romp through the next 25 years. It consists of preface, 5 chapters, conclusion and afterwards. First chapter preceded by the glossary of key terms. From Chapter 1, â€Å"What the World Needs Now†, â€Å"Blueprint for Action† is an exploration of a three-tiered argument concerning system and individual struggle to understand the seam between war and peace. If the first book was compelling vision of the future, now military analyst Barnett presents his vision of the future. â€Å"Careers will be made and lost, industries will rise and fall, and waging peace will finally prioritized over waging war† (p. 2). He explores both the long- and short-term pathways for governments, institutions, and individuals. Paying particular attention to regions as Iran, Iraq, and the Middle East, China, North Korea he outlines the strategies to pursue, the entities to create, the pitfalls to overcome. His favorite concept is the theory of anti-access. Author states that â€Å"instead of focusing on classified â€Å"black project† to facilitate the Leviathan’s lofty ambitions, the Pentagon conducts secret talks with allies on how they might better shoulder the SysAdmin’s many burdens† (p. 2). The battle space is Leviathan and SysAdmin takes over in transition and peace, also considered â€Å"the areas of everything else†. So â€Å"Blueprint for Action† is something like a road map through a chaotic and uncertain world to â€Å"a future worth creating. † Joseph R. Cerami, Richard A. Chilcoat, and Patrick B. Baetjer, eds. The Future of Transatlantic Security Relations (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute of the U. S. Army War College, 2006). This writing is a compilation of reports and materials from the conference about the future of transatlantic security relations hold on March 8, 2006, Annenberg Presidential Conference Center in College Station in Texas. Materials of the conference was edited by Richard A. (Dick) Chilcoat (Dean, Bush School of Government and Public Service) and Joseph Cerami (Director, Public Service Leadership Program, Bush School of Government and Public Service) as members of the Executive Committee. The book consists of introduction preceded by a foreword and a letter from President, 4 chapters (panels). After the main text go extra materials – list of addresses, remarks, conference papers, biographies and sponsor information. The purpose of the conference was to examine the future of the NATO. Conference panels examined U. S. and European foreign policies and the potential for forging a new consensus on U. S. and European foreign policy and military strategy. Dr. Steinberg stated that â€Å"The difficulty remains that the United States and Europe do not have a sense of a compelling need for cooperation, thus even the smallest differences tend to divide them† (p. 14). It is needed to develop a deeper understanding of key security issues facing the U. S. and Europe at this critical time. James S. Corum, Training Indigenous Forces in Counterinsurgency: A Tale of Two Insurgencies (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute of the U. S. Army War College, 2006). Book by James Corum tales about training indigenous police and military forces for counterinsurgency campaigns. The book consists of introduction preceded by a foreword, summary, biographical sketch of the author. After introduction go case study Cyprus, case study Malaya, conclusion and recommendations. Author states that â€Å"While every insurgency has its unique aspects, there are also circumstances that often are repeated in other insurgencies. This conclusion offers a few general insights to help understand the nature of counterinsurgency operations, as well as some specific recommendations to change U. S. military doctrine and policy for training indigenous police and military forces in counterinsurgency†(p. 34). This monograph aims to help fill the information gap about how indigenous security forces should be trained for counterinsurgency. Corum outlines the level of training which security forces need to conduct effective counterinsurgency operations, defines the role of the police in counterinsurgency, and discovers the role of irregular security organizations. Besides this the author tells about different training programs for producing effective military leaders. Martin Van Crevald, The Transformation of War (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1991). Israeli military historian Van Creveld advances a new understanding of the ends and means of war in his book â€Å"The transformation of war†. There were perhaps 160 armed conflicts around the world since the end of WWII. Those conflicts were not global. Therefore author speaks about low-intensity conflict (LIC) which is the true nature of contemporary war. Its principal characteristics are as follows: â€Å"First, they tend to unfold in ‘less developed’ parts of the world†¦. Second, very rarely do they involve regular armies on both sides, though often it is a question of regulars on one side fighting guerrillas, terrorists, even civilians, including women and children, on the other. Third, most LICs do not rely primarily on the high-technology collective weapons that are the pride and joy of any modern armed force† (p. 42). Israeli historian states that existing of empires made impossible for the ‘subjects’ to take the conflict to the heart of the empire. Van Creveld compares clashes between Hindus and Muslims in 1947-49, Nigerian Civil War from 1966 to 1969, Vietnamese conflict; analyses conflicts which taking place in the Sri Lanka, Iraq, Kurdistan, Sudan, Angola and half a dozen other countries. Book of Van Creveld answer a question what war is today. Thomas A. Dempsey, Counterterrorism in African Failed States: Challenges and Potential Solutions (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute of the U. S. Army War College, 2006). The book of Thomas Dempsey examines three failed states in Sub-Saharan Africa – Somalia, Liberia, and Sierra Leone to give an outline of the terrorist groups operating there. â€Å"Counterterrorism in African Failed States† consists of introduction preceded by a foreword, summary, biographical sketch of the author. Then go defining state failure, case study methodology. Dempsey states that criminalization and disintegration of administrative structure of the failed state, collapse of public security forces provide advantageous circumstances for terrorists. The author focuses on the current the characteristics of a network of terroristic organizations and covers up two very different types of cells: terrorist nodes and terrorist hubs. â€Å"Hubs provide centralized direction and communication linkages among nodes that are decentralized and largely, if not entirely, independent of each other† (p. 6). Research reveals presence of both types of cells in those states. To fight with terrorist groups operating from failed states Dempsey suggests new strategy that combines both military and law enforcement efforts, supported by intelligence capabilities and intelligence-led policing. Thomas X. Hammes, The Sling and the Stone: On War in the 21st Century (St. Paul, MN: Zenith Press, 2006). Colonel Thomas X. Hammes contends that American military forces are engaging in a fourth generation of warfare, which he labels â€Å"4GW† (Fourth Generation Warfare) throughout â€Å"The Sling and the Stone: On War in the 21st Century†. That’s the only kind of war America has ever lost. First generation of war, Hammes sees, was conflicts of Napoleonic era, the second generation was World War I, and the third generation was World War II, focuses on examples of the evolution of 4GW. In the writing are analysed conflicts in Afghanistan, Vietnam and Iraq. And a new, forth, form of warfare â€Å"directly attacks the minds of enemy decision makers to destroy the enemy’s political will† (p. 11). Hammes contends Mao Tse-tung was the first who started a new form of war and Vietnamese general Vo Nguyen Giap have been influenced by Mao. The main author’s concept is that expanding of 4GW encouraged the fact that â€Å"only unconventional warfare works against established powers† (p. 103). The author asserts that current concentration on advanced technology is incorrect because the wars â€Å"are long term struggles that will be won or lost primarily with human skills and knowledge† (p. 14), because high-tech weapons have a little meaning when the enemy has a different concept of conflict. Samuel P. Huntingdon, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1996). In â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order† Samuel P. Huntington suggests a new view international political theory, contending that in modern world the most important distinctions among peoples are cultural, but not political or ideological. â€Å"While nation states will remain the principal units of analysis in international affairs, their behavior will be shaped most decisively not by the pursuit of power and wealth (as realism suggests), but by cultural preferences, commonalities, and differences† (p. 21). The author argues civilization divides people of the same race, but at the same time people of different races are united by the same civilization. Huntington understands religion as a central uniting characteristic of civilizations. The global dynamic will be one of the civilizational â€Å"fault lines† along which civilizational blocs would engage each other. According to an author view civilizations clash because conflict is naturally prevalent in the international system. Therefore there are two levels of conflict between civilizations: micro-level (conflicts between adjoining states from different civilizations) and at macro-level (conflicts occur between major states of different civilizations). But to achieve cultural cohesion every civilization should develop its values, institutions and culture. Mark D. Mandeles, The Future of War: Organizations as Weapons (Dulles, VA: Potomac Books, Inc. , 2005). Mark D. Mandeles analyses major post-9/11 military events in his book to make consideration about future of warfare. The book consists of seven chapters. Its main theme is influence of organization upon military operations, and Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) plays centrally into it. A qualitative improvement in weapons transforms the character of warfare. Mandeles states that military organizations will have to adapt in fundamental ways to seize the advantages offered by technological superiority, seeking optimum utilization of technology. But the optimum utilization can occur only through optimum organization. Author insists on â€Å"relationship between the difficulties of coordinating large organizations composed of many people and offices having specialized roles, and the challenges of calculation, attention, and memory that face individuals making decisions with inadequate or ambiguous information under short deadlines or stressful situations† (p 3). â€Å"The Future of War† gives information how command and control should be organized in the context of the changing new technology. Jerry Mander and Victoria Tauli-Corpuz, eds. Paradigm Wars: Indigenous Peoples Resistance to Globalization (San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books, 2006). â€Å"Paradigm Wars† is an anthology, edited by Jerry Mander and Victoria Tauli-Corpuz, which is dedicated to modern international relations. In this book twenty-seven intellectuals tell about globalization and how native peoples resist to it, about economic institutions and the indigenous nations. It records examples of how indigenous communities have used the global economy to create sustainable industry (such as ecotourist programs by communities in Belize and Australia), the role played by American Indians in a safer energy future and how the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund struggle for resources (wood, genetic materials, oil) situated on the native peoples lands. â€Å"Paradigm Wars† details impacts of extractive industries and bioprospecting on the environment, damage done by conservation groups. It gives information about degrading of cultural artifacts and languages and how indigenous communities protect their sovereignties as no community is more directly impacted by globalization than 350 million indigenous peoples. Anthology assures us that indigenous nations continue to resist against the New World order. Michael McClintoc, Instruments of Statecraft: U. S. Guerilla Warfare, Counter-insurgency, and Counter-terrorism, 1940-1990 (New York, NY: Pantheon Books, 1992). The book of Michael McClintoc is a study of how the U. S military applied special-warfare doctrine in third world nations. Scope of the book consists of introduction, 18 chapters divided to three parts and an epilogue. McClintoc tells about unconventional warfare, which in fact is state supported terrorism waged against ideological adversaries, from the Truman administration up to the recent war in the Persian Gulf. The author gives an expose of the dark side of American foreign policy, narrates about using of terroristic activities (torture, kidnapping, sabotage and assassination) to overthrow the foreign governments. The writing provides interesting facts for example that CIA helped to develop the infrastructure for state terrorism that appeared in Latin America during the 60s. It examinates tactical roots of U. S policy from the pronouncements of Clausewitz and Raymond Aron, to its ideological basis in the Monroe Doctrine and Woodrow Wilson’s post-colonialist crusade. And it’s continued nowadays. Michael McClintoc states that â€Å"special operations in the new world order would have a new range of objectives, with their missions—and pretexts—adjusted to the end of the Cold War. The new missions, such as drug enforcement, will provide a vehicle for continuing some of the old missions that persist from the Cold War and the counterinsurgency era. † Steven Metz and Raymond A. Millen, Future War/Future Battlespace: The Strategic Role of American Landpower (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute of the U. S. Army War College, 2003). In monograph by Steven Metz and Raymond A. Millen, authors examine new trends in the strategic environment in their development in a future war. They outline tremendous challenges in war fighting in the post 9-11 era and insist on the need that U. S. Landpower should adapt to new type of conflict. As â€Å"transformation must continuously develop new operational and strategic concepts, educate soldiers and officers to implement them, and develop organizations and technologies to ensure they function† (p. x). To make that adaptation real, the monograph gives a scope of what will be the shape and characteristics of the future international security environment, responds characteristics of the future battlefield, and outlines the potential or probable roles and missions of the Army. After transformation â€Å"the Army is vital to the type of strategy that would best promote American interests over the long term† (p. 33). Williamson Murray, ed. National Security Challenges for the 21st Century (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute of the U. S. Army War College, 2003). An anthology edited by Williamson Murray consists of reports written by officers who participated in the Advanced Strategic Art Program (ASAP) during their year at the U. S. Army War College. ASAP is a course instructing in theater strategy. Essays included in this volume provide insights into challenges facing the defense establishment in the United States at the beginning of the 21st century in the post 9-11 era. In the foreword of the anthology Murray states â€Å"that America needs officers who possess a deep understanding of the difficulties involved in the use of force in the international arena as well as understand the complex problems involved in the political and strategic challenges confronted by the United States†(p. 1). So the authors speaking about present army problems address such issues as the development of officer’s carrier and make predictions about how could be â€Å"combined tactical and operational excellence with intellectual curiosity in their careers† (p.15). Williamson Murray, ed. A Nation at War in an Era of Strategic Change (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute of the U. S. Army War College, 2004). This book is a compilation of essays, edited by Williamson Murray, written by the students enrolled in the Army War College’s Advanced Strategic Art Program (ASAP). It consists of 14 essays preceded by a foreword and an introduction. The authors give coverage to some issues connected with transforming the U. S. Army to engaging in active combat operations associated against terrorists. The main theme of the anthology is lessons of Iraq conflict. Dr. Murray states in foreword that â€Å"the victory over Saddam Hussein’s forces underlined that the fundamental nature of war is not going to change,† because of â€Å"the technological monism† of American forces â€Å"has quite simply foundered on the realities of the battlefields in Iraq† (p. 2). The editor observes that â€Å"the conflict also suggests that the American military needs to think in a more holistic fashion about the conduct of war at the operational level† (p.3). The authors of the compilation provide thorough examination of the lessons from the battlefield, outline the U. S. national strategies, rise up the problem questions and offer ways to resolve. The final conclusions of the compilation states â€Å"The United States needs to focus on learning the right lessons from its past conflicts by examining not only what went right, but also by examining what went wrong and what adjustments potential adversaries have made as a result of U. S. actions† (p. 361). Henry E. Sokolski, ed. Taming the Next Set of Strategic Weapons Sets (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute of the U. S. Army War College, 2006). This volume edited by Henry Sokolski features research the Nonproliferation Policy Education Center commissioned. It consists of 9 chapters divided into three sections, preceded by an introduction. The book starts with the statement that nowadays nuclear technologies have become much more difficult to control. â€Å"Attempts to develop a legally binding inspections protocol to the Biological Weapons Convention were recently rejected by U. S. officials as being inadequate to catch serious violators while being prone to set off false alarms against perfectly innocent actors. † Therefore the anthology is designed to illustrate what might happen if these emerging threats go unattended and how best to mitigate them. Patrick Clawson of the Washington Institute makes clear the issue of further proliferation is Iran in Chapter 2, â€Å"Proliferation in the Middle East: Who is Next after Iran? † By the end of the chapter Sokolski argues â€Å"that the greatest security danger renewed strategic arms proliferation presents is not the increased chance of nuclear theft or terrorism† (p. 6). The book explains how the United States and other advanced states might share unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) services and turn-key missile systems rather than handing over the means for their production. Strobe Talbott and Nayan Chanda, eds. The Age of Terror: America and the World After September 11 (New York, NY: Basic Books, 2001). â€Å"The Age of Terror: America and the World After September 11† was written just a few months after the terrorist attacks. But each of the eight chapters provide critical analyses of the American and international developments and events that are as helpful in explaining 9/11. The authors of the book placed events of September 11 into highlighting political and historical contexts. â€Å"The post-cold war era began with the collapse of one structure, the Berlin wall on November 9,1989, and ended with the collapse of another, the World Trade Center’s twin towers on September 11† (p.3). Ideas shared by Strobe Talbott and Nayan Chanda compose serious discourse about American post-9/11 policies. The authors states that â€Å"Americans were not responsible for the Pearl Harbour, but they would have been irresponsible in the extreme if they had not, as a consequence of that attack, dramatically altered their policies†(p. 5). And the crucial conclusion which is drawn in the book is that the geographical position and the military power of the U. S. are no longer sufficient to ensure its security.